1789 – 1815
An era shaped by the French Revolution and Napoleon's Empire, revolutionising the art of war with famous battles at Austerlitz (1805), Jena (1806), and Waterloo (1815).
The Battle of Valmy is a major victory for the young French Republic. It halts the Prussian advance toward Paris and galvanizes the Revolution.
The Battle of Jemappes is an important victory for the French revolutionary armies that allows conquest of Belgium and marks a major advance in the war against the coalition monarchies.
The Battle of Andernach is an important French victory that repulses Prussian forces on the east bank of the Rhine, consolidating the Republic's territorial gains.
The Battle of Neerwinden is a significant French defeat that marks retreat of revolutionary forces from Belgium.
The First Battle of Wissembourg is an indecisive confrontation between French revolutionary forces and coalition armies, which fails to unblock the situation on the Rhine front.
The Battle of Wissembourg is a major victory of French revolutionary armies that drives coalition forces out of Alsace and consolidates their control over the region.
The Battle of Hondschoote is a French victory that ends the siege of Dunkirk and drives coalition forces out of Flanders.
The siege of Valenciennes ends in French defeat, the town falling to coalition forces after a prolonged siege.
The Battle of Wattignies is a strategic victory for French revolutionary forces that allows lifting of the siege of Maubeuge held by Austrian troops. It restores confidence to French armies and secures a key position in the north.
The Battle of Kaiserslautern is a key French victory that halts Prussian advance in the region and secures French positions along the Rhine.
The siege of Toulon is a strategic victory for the French Republic, which retakes the town held by royalists supported by an Anglo-Spanish coalition. It is during this siege that Napoleon Bonaparte distinguishes himself for his artillery talents.
The Battle of Fleurus is a decisive French victory that ensures control of Belgium and opens the way to conquest of the Austrian Netherlands.
The siege of Valenciennes is an important French victory that allows retaking the town from coalition forces and consolidating the Republic's position in the north.
The Battle of Basel is an important French victory that ensures the Republic's domination over part of the upper Rhine and opens the way to occupation of Switzerland.
In 1795, several skirmishes and engagements took place in the Höchstädt region between French and Austrian armies. These confrontations resulted in no decisive victory and ended in mutual withdrawals without significant territorial change.
The Battle of Biberach is a French victory that strengthens Moreau's position in southern Germany by repulsing Austrian forces led by Latour.
Napoleon's first major victory in Italy; the Battle of Montenotte split the Austro-Sardinian forces in two, compromising their coordination and opening the way to French domination of the region.
The Battle of Millesimo consolidated the victory at Montenotte by harrying retreating troops, further disrupting Austro-Sardinian cohesion.
Victory that completed the fragmentation of coalition forces, giving the French control of an important strategic position on the route south.
French victory that forced the Kingdom of Sardinia to request an armistice, facilitating the conquest of Piedmont.
Major victory that opened the way to the capture of Milan, consolidating Napoleon's Italian campaign.
French victory that neutralized an Austrian attempt to lift the siege of Mantua.
Victory that drives the Austrians eastward, consolidating French control in Venetia.
Tactical engagement that does not substantially alter the strategic situation in the region.
French victory thanks to a bold offensive that takes control of the Arcole bridge, halting Austrian advance.
Decisive victory that ended the Austrian offensive and secured French domination of northern Italy.
Strategic victory by Hoche that forced the Austrians to retreat, consolidating the French position along the Rhine.
Decisive victory by Napoleon that broke Mamluk military power in Egypt, opening the way to French conquest of the country.
Major naval defeat for France in which Brueys's fleet was annihilated by the British navy under Nelson, isolating the French army in Egypt.
Heavy French defeat that forced Jourdan to retreat, weakening the French position in southwestern Germany.
French victory that successfully defended the position at Alexandria against an Ottoman offensive, consolidating the French presence in Egypt despite maritime isolation.
On 15 August 1799, the Battle of Novi pitted General Joubert's French army against an Austro-Russian coalition led by Marshal Suvorov and General Kray. From the first hours, Joubert was mortally wounded, depriving the French of centralized command and gravely destabilizing their lines. French troops, already worn down by previous fighting and numerically inferior, nevertheless fought fiercely against repeated coalition attacks. The day was marked by frontal assaults and local counterattacks, in which the French army showed remarkable but insufficient resistance. One of the bloodiest battles of the Italian campaign, it ended in a major French defeat and a precipitate retreat toward the Apennines.
Major French victory under Masséna that forced the coalition to withdraw from Switzerland, securing strategic control of the region.
Decisive French victory under Kléber that repulsed a large Ottoman army, securing French domination of the Nile Delta.
Important French victory that repulsed Austrian forces and secured the French advance in southern Germany.
The Battle of Marengo was a decisive victory for Napoleon Bonaparte that secured control of northern Italy. After a difficult start, the French army, thanks to a counterattack led by Desaix, reversed the situation and inflicted a heavy defeat on the Austrians.
The Battle of Elchingen, often called the Battle of Höchstädt, was a decisive victory for French forces under General Ney, breaking Austrian lines and renewing the offensive in southern Germany.
Decisive victory by Moreau at the Battle of Hohenlinden, inflicting a heavy defeat on the Austrians and allowing the French offensive in Germany to continue.
The Battle of Pozzolo was an important French victory that pushed Austrian forces beyond the Mincio and consolidated French domination in Lombardy.
The French expedition to Holland aimed to repel British and Russian coalition forces occupying the Batavian Republic. Moreau succeeded in restoring French control over the region.
The Siege of Cairo ended with the capitulation of French forces to British troops, bringing the French campaign in Egypt to an end.
The Siege of Alexandria ended with the capitulation of French forces to the British, bringing an end to the French presence in Egypt.
French naval defeat near Alexandria, significantly reducing French maritime capacity in the Mediterranean and definitively severing links between France and its troops in Egypt.
In 1802, France launched a major military expedition led by General Leclerc to restore control over its colony of Saint-Domingue, severely shaken by the slave rebellion. Despite initial tactical victories, the campaign faced fierce insurgent resistance and massive losses from combat and tropical disease.
Fort Crête-à-Pierrot, held by Haitian insurgents, was besieged by French troops in a prolonged battle. Despite fierce insurgent resistance, the French finally took the fort after several weeks of fighting.
The siege of the port city of Saint-Marc was conducted by French forces seeking to retake a strategic position held by insurgents. After several weeks of fighting, the French succeeded in capturing the city.
The Battle of Vertières was the last major engagement of the Haitian War of Independence. French forces, weakened by prolonged fighting and disease, were defeated by the Haitian insurgent army led by Dessalines. This defeat led to the final surrender of French troops and marked the end of French colonial presence in Saint-Domingue.
After the breakdown of the Peace of Amiens, the British retook the strategic island of Saint Lucia in the West Indies, regaining control of territories colonized during the brief peace.
The Siege of Cap-Français was a long siege that progressively weakened French forces in their main bastion in Saint-Domingue. Haitian resistance, combined with harsh conditions, led to final surrender after the Battle of Vertières.
The Battle of Wertingen was the first engagement of the Ulm campaign. French cavalry under Murat swept the Austrian vanguard in a rapid, violent attack. Lannes supported the offensive with infantry.
Lannes was ordered to seize the bridges over the Danube at Günzburg to cut Austrian retreat to the east. He launched several assaults against Austrian defenses protecting the strategic crossings.
Dupont's isolated division encountered an overwhelming Austrian force near Ulm. Despite numerical inferiority, it held its position for several hours, inflicting heavy losses and preventing any strategic breakthrough.
The Battle of Elchingen was a crucial engagement in tightening the noose around Ulm. Ney launched a vigorous attack against Austrian forces entrenched on the heights of Elchingen, forcing them to retreat in disorder.
The capitulation of Ulm ended the strategic encirclement orchestrated by Napoleon. Austrian General Karl Mack surrendered with nearly 27,000 men without a real battle, trapped by the Grande Armée's speed of maneuver.
Trafalgar is the most famous naval battle of the Napoleonic Wars. The Franco-Spanish fleet sought to break the British blockade but was intercepted and destroyed by Nelson, whose bold tactics produced a crushing victory despite his death in action.
The Battle of Caldiero pitted Masséna's troops against those of Archduke Charles in difficult weather conditions. Despite several attempts, the French failed to break the Austrian lines.
Gazan's division, isolated in a gorge on the Danube, was encircled and attacked from all sides by a greatly superior Austro-Russian force. Mortier sent reinforcements to prevent annihilation. Fighting was bloody and intense, but the French managed to extricate themselves.
In this rearguard action, Russian General Bagration skillfully delayed the French advance to allow the bulk of the Austro-Russian army to fall back toward Brünn and join Kutuzov. Murat fell into the Russians' diplomatic trap, accepting a false armistice to gain time.
The Battle of Austerlitz, known as the "Battle of the Three Emperors," marks the apex of Napoleonic strategy. Facing a numerically superior allied army, Napoleon used ruse, meticulous preparation of the terrain, and the mobility of his troops to transform an apparently unfavorable position into a crushing victory. He deliberately placed his army on the Pratzen plateau, which he then had evacuated to lure the enemy into concentrating forces there. Convinced that the French right flank was weakened, the Austro-Russians committed the bulk of their troops to it. This maneuver dangerously weakened their center, which they believed out of reach. Napoleon waited until the enemy was fully committed to this error before ordering Soult's corps, concealed in the fog, to assault the plateau. The breakthrough at the center literally cut the allied army in two, sowing panic and making coordination impossible. On the wings, Davout and Lannes held or advanced according to plan, while Murat's cavalry and the Imperial Guard exploited the collapse of the enemy dispositions to capture thousands of prisoners. The rout was total: many Austro-Russian soldiers drowned attempting to flee across the frozen ponds of Satschan under French artillery fire. Austerlitz is not only a tactical masterpiece but also a political turning point for Europe; the victory placed Napoleon at the height of his glory and upended the continental balance.
The Battle of Saalfeld saw Lannes's French vanguard meet a Prussian corps commanded by the young Prince Louis Ferdinand. Despite his bravery, the latter died in combat and his troops were defeated by skillful French maneuvers.
The Battle of Jena saw Napoleon crush the left wing of the Prussian army. Despite morning fog and incomplete information, the Emperor skillfully maneuvered his army corps to overwhelm enemy positions. The arrival of Davout's corps in reinforcement at Auerstedt the same day completed a general rout.
On the same day as Napoleon at Jena, Davout faced the bulk of the Prussian army. Despite numerical inferiority of roughly one to two, he held all day thanks to the exceptional discipline of his troops. General Brunswick was mortally wounded, the Prussian chain of command collapsed, and Davout turned a defensive position into a brilliant victory.
Three days after Jena, Bernadotte intercepted an important Prussian division in retreat at Halle. He launched a brutal attack against their entrenched positions, taking the city by storm, cutting bridges, and sowing chaos in enemy ranks.
Prince Hohenlohe's Prussian column, in retreat after Jena, was intercepted near Prenzlau by Murat's cavalry. A brief skirmish degenerated into encirclement, and Murat forced Hohenlohe to capitulate by exaggerating French strength. Ruse, speed, and tactical pressure triumphed.
Seeking to escape encirclement, Blücher attempted to take refuge in Lübeck, a free and neutral city. The French forced entry into the city despite protests from authorities and fought in the streets. Fighting was intense and ended in Prussian capitulation.
After a short siege, the powerful fortress of Magdeburg, one of Prussia's most important, capitulated without offering real resistance. Ney, encircling the city and bombarding its outskirts, persuaded the Prussian commander to surrender.
In a grueling winter offensive, French forces engaged the Russian rearguard at Gołymin. Fighting was confused, made difficult by snow, mud, and nightfall. The Russians held firmly, then managed to withdraw in good order.
In extreme weather conditions, Lannes faced a numerically superior Russian army at Pułtusk. Though violently attacked, Bennigsen refused to retreat immediately and sustained fighting all day. At nightfall the Russians withdrew in good order, but both sides claimed victory.
During a winter redeployment phase, Ney was surprised by a Russian offensive near Mohrungen. His troops, numerically inferior, resisted fiercely and prevented the Russians from penetrating deeper into the French zone. After violent fighting, the Russians withdrew.
Murat's French cavalry engaged Russian vanguards on icy, difficult terrain. Fighting was violent but confused, ending without a clear victor. This battle set the stage for the decisive confrontation at Eylau two days later.
Eylau was one of the bloodiest battles of the Napoleonic era. Under a snowstorm, the French attacked Russian lines around the town of Eylau. The battlefield was chaotic, visibility nil. Murat led a cavalry charge of more than 10,000 men to halt the enemy advance. At day's end both sides remained on the field, drained of blood. Napoleon claimed victory, but the result was militarily indecisive.
Verdier's division, isolated at Ostrołęka, was attacked by a greatly superior Russian force. Verdier skillfully defended his positions, repulsed several assaults, and retained control of the town after a day of fierce fighting.
The Battle of Heilsberg opposed French forces to Russians solidly entrenched on heights behind the Alle River. The poorly coordinated French attack met fierce defense. Casualties were heavy on both sides, and the French failed to break through.
The Battle of Friedland opposed Napoleon's French forces to Bennigsen's Russian army, which had imprudently engaged with the Alle River at its back. After a tenacious defense led by Lannes in the morning, Napoleon arrived with the bulk of his forces, launched a massive attack on the Russian left flank, and crushed the enemy army. Victory was total, sealing the end of the campaign.
The two engagements at El Bruc saw French columns attacked in the Catalan mountains by local militias. Poorly prepared for the terrain, Schwartz's and then Chabran's forces were repulsed by tenacious defense, reinforced by surprise and popular support.
The Battle of Medina de Rioseco saw Bessières's French forces attack a divided Spanish army. Taking advantage of poor coordination between Generals Blake and Cuesta, Bessières launched a decisive attack on the center and destroyed the union of enemy forces. It was one of the rare French successes at the start of the Peninsular War.
The Battle of Bailén opposed General Dupont's French troops, isolated in the Guadalquivir valley, to the Spanish armies of Castaños and Reding. After several days of skirmishing, the French attempted a breakthrough but were caught in a pincer. Overwhelmed by heat, lack of supplies, and encirclement, Dupont capitulated with his entire army.
Loison marched toward Lisbon from the Portuguese interior to support occupation forces. At Évora he met resistance from local militias and Spanish volunteers. After a short battle, the French swept enemy positions and took the city, which was then sacked by the troops.
General Delaborde, numerically inferior, sought to slow the British advance toward Lisbon. He positioned himself on the heights of Roliça. Wellesley first attempted an encirclement, then a frontal attack. Despite tenacious resistance, the French were repulsed but withdrew in good order.
Junot attempted a frontal attack against Wellesley's fortified positions around Vimeiro. Despite several determined assaults, the French failed to break through. British defensive superiority, well-positioned artillery, and use of terrain prevented any French advance. Junot was forced to retreat.
Blake, poorly positioned on the heights of Zornoza, was attacked by Lefebvre with part of IV Corps. The French gained the advantage from the start thanks to superior artillery and discipline. Blake managed to withdraw but suffered heavy losses.
As a division of Marshal Victor advanced isolated at the front, Blake succeeded in surprising it with a force attack. The French were momentarily beaten and forced to withdraw. It was a rare Spanish success during the November campaign.
The Battle of Gamonal opposed Soult's French vanguard to an inferior Spanish force commanded by Belveder. The Spanish, inexperienced and poorly positioned on open ground, were swept by French infantry supported by a powerful cavalry charge. The road to Burgos was opened.
After the surprise at Valmaseda, Victor pursued Blake and caught him at Espinosa. On 10 November the Spanish resisted the first attacks, but the next day Victor concentrated his forces, broke the Spanish center, and dispersed the army. It was a complete victory that temporarily eliminated the threat in the north.
The Battle of Tudela opposed a poorly coordinated Spanish army to a French force superior in organization. Lannes attacked the Spanish center and right, breaking their line, while Moncey pressed on the left wing. The Spanish army was dislocated and in flight before nightfall.
To open the road to Madrid, Napoleon ordered an attack on Spanish redoubts defending the Somosierra pass. After several unsuccessful infantry assaults, he ordered a bold charge by the Polish Guard chasseurs. They broke enemy lines, captured the guns, and forced the Spanish to retreat. The road to the capital was cleared.
Saint-Cyr, marching from Girona to relieve besieged Barcelona, faced a numerically inferior but solidly positioned Spanish army at Cardedeu. He concentrated his forces for a rapid frontal breakthrough that broke Spanish lines. Vives's army disintegrated and Saint-Cyr relieved the city shortly afterward.
After his victory at Cardedeu, Saint-Cyr continued the offensive and attacked the combined forces of Vives and Reding entrenched at Molins de Rei on the outskirts of Barcelona. A coordinated frontal assault, supported by artillery, broke Spanish lines. The enemy army disintegrated and Barcelona was definitively relieved from siege.
In the context of the British retreat toward La Coruña, Lefebvre-Desnouettes's Guard chasseurs crossed the frozen Esla River to attempt a surprise attack on the British rearguard. But British hussars reacted quickly, countercharged, and inflicted a defeat on the French. Lefebvre was captured.
Pursuing retreating British forces, French cavalry reached the bridge at Cacabelos defended by the British rearguard. An attack was launched without coordination with French infantry. The British, well posted, inflicted losses and killed General Colbert with a sharpshooter's shot. The French fell back awaiting reinforcements.
Victor attacked Spanish forces entrenched near the monastery of Uclès. The well-coordinated assault broke the enemy line, and French cavalry exploited the breakthrough to encircle fugitives. Rout was complete, and Venegas narrowly escaped capture.
Cornered against the sea after a long retreat, the British army defended the port city of La Coruña while awaiting evacuation by sea. Soult attacked on 16 January, hoping to prevent their escape. The British held firm and resisted French assaults, succeeding in embarking the majority of their troops during the night. Moore was killed in the fighting.
Suchet faced the Valencian army near Castellón in a decisive battle to secure the eastern flank of Spain. Though slightly inferior in numbers, the French engaged a methodical attack and broke the Spanish center. French cavalry pursued fugitives and completed the victory.
Suchet, seeking to secure the province of Tarragona, intercepted Reding's army near Valls. After cautious reconnaissance, he launched a combined attack at the center and on the flanks. French cavalry, skillfully led, executed a turning maneuver that trapped the Spanish. Reding was mortally wounded in the rout.
Despite numerical inferiority, Victor engaged a decisive maneuver against Cuesta's army deployed on an extended line. After containing Spanish attacks on his wings, he launched a central counteroffensive supported by artillery and cavalry. The Spanish army was completely routed.
Wellesley led a bold surprise attack on Porto, crossing the Douro with a light force before Soult could react. Caught off guard, the French marshal attempted to rally his troops, but the bridge was cut and Anglo-Portuguese forces advanced rapidly into the city. Retreat became inevitable.
General Schwarz's French column, sent from Barcelona to secure the road to Lleida, was stopped in the El Bruc pass by determined Catalan militias. Supported by regular troops, the latter used the heights and coordinated ambushes to block French advance. After several breakthrough attempts, Schwarz retreated toward Barcelona.
The Battle of Wagram was one of the largest engagements of the Napoleonic Wars, pitting the forces of Napoleon I against the Austrian army commanded by Archduke Charles. After suffering a reverse at Aspern-Essling, Napoleon crossed the Danube again in early July 1809 with the help of a vast pontoon bridge built in secret. On 5 July the French army was attacked while still deploying, but held against the assaults. The next day Napoleon organized a decisive counter-offensive, supported by a massive concentration of artillery in the center (the "grand battery") and a powerful attack on the right flank led by Marshal Davout. Archduke Charles, unable either to break the French lines or contain their coordinated attacks, ordered a retreat on the evening of 6 July. This victory allowed Napoleon to impose severe terms on Austria.
French forces of Joseph Bonaparte and Marshal Victor attacked entrenched Anglo-Spanish positions around Talavera. The battle was bloody and fierce, with repeated assaults against heights held by Wellington's troops. After two days of fighting, the French failed to break British lines. However, the allies could not exploit their victory due to fatigue, losses, and the arrival of a new French army in their rear.
Venegas's Spanish forces, attempting to march on Madrid after the Battle of Talavera, were intercepted at Almonacid by General Sébastiani. Despite numerical superiority and a defensive position on the heights, the Spanish were repulsed after a series of coordinated assaults by French infantry and artillery. Their line gave way in the afternoon, followed by a disorganized retreat.
The British launched an amphibious raid on the port of Saint-Paul to capture the French privateer schooner Caroline, very active in the Indian Ocean. Governor Des Bruslys, broken by pressure, committed suicide the day before. Colonel Saint-Michel organized a defense with militiamen and a few coastal artillery pieces, but the British managed to land, capture the fort, disarm the batteries, and burn the port. Caroline was seized.
Duke del Parque's Spanish army occupied the heights of Tamames and repulsed General Marchand's frontal attack. Despite several assaults, French troops, numerically inferior and poorly coordinated, failed to break the Spanish line. The battle marked one of the rare Spanish tactical successes in 1809.
Despite numerical inferiority, Soult and Sébastiani faced Aréizaga's Spanish army near Ocaña. Thanks to a powerful artillery attack, a cavalry maneuver on the right wing, and experienced infantry, the French inflicted total rout on the Spanish. The Army of La Mancha was destroyed.
Taking advantage of the precipitate withdrawal of Duke del Parque's Spanish troops after Tamames, General Kellermann launched a rapid pursuit. The Spanish rearguard, surprised near the bridge at Alba de Tormes, was attacked by French cavalry before the entire army could cross the river. Enemy formations were broken and artillery captured.
The Battle of Grand Port is the only major French naval victory of the Napoleonic Wars after Trafalgar. Duperré and Bouvet's French frigates, aided by coastal batteries, lured British ships into a narrow lagoon. The enemy fleet ran aground on the reefs. The French destroyed two ships and captured two others. It was a resounding reverse for the Royal Navy.
Masséna attempted to break through the Anglo-Portuguese defensive line entrenched on the heights of Bussaco. The frontal assault led by Reynier and Ney failed against a well-organized defense and well-positioned allied artillery. Despite numerical superiority, the French army suffered a costly tactical defeat.
The Battle of Barrosa saw General Victor's French troops attempt to intercept an Anglo-Spanish sortie from Cádiz. Although the Spanish hesitated, Graham's British mounted an energetic attack on the heights of Barrosa. After fierce fighting the French were repulsed but retained their strategic positions. The battle is considered indecisive, or even tactically favorable to the Allies.
The Battle of Sabugal took place during Masséna's retreat from Portugal. General Reynier, commanding the rearguard, was unexpectedly attacked by a British brigade that crossed the river in the fog. Despite initial resistance, his troops were put in difficulty and had to retreat in disorder.
The battle opposed Masséna, attempting to relieve the French garrison besieged at Almeida, to Wellington, firmly entrenched at Fuentes de Oñoro. After two days of skirmishing, Masséna launched a massive attack on 5 May. Despite initial success on the British right flank, allied resistance held. The French army withdrew without breaking the blockade.
Soult attempted to raise the siege of Badajoz by attacking the allied army at Albuera. The French frontal assault, directed by Godinot then Girard, initially succeeded. But a fierce counterattack by British infantry and the tenacity of Spanish troops broke the French momentum. Both sides suffered heavy losses without a decisive victory.
The Battle of Zújar pitted French cavalry commanded by Latour-Maubourg against an isolated Spanish force attempting to interrupt French communications in southwestern Spain. Thanks to a skillful turning maneuver, French cavalry dispersed the enemy forces and captured a large number of prisoners.
General Hugo intercepted a mobile guerrilla force commanded by 'El Empecinado' in the mountainous region of Cuenca. Thanks to a flanking movement and surprise, French troops partially encircled the Spaniards and inflicted heavy losses.
Suchet faced Blake's Spanish army, which had come to relieve the besieged town of Sagunto. Thanks to a determined attack on the enemy center, French troops broke the Spanish lines and achieved a decisive victory, opening the road to Valencia.
Suchet launched a bold maneuver to take Valencia by encircling Blake's forces. After intense fighting around Mislata and the Turia River, the Spanish army was trapped. Blake attempted a breakout but failed and had to capitulate with a large part of his troops.
Wellington launched a rapid assault against Ciudad Rodrigo, held by a small French garrison. After several days of intense bombardment, Anglo-Portuguese troops breached the town walls and launched a night assault. The French garrison was overwhelmed despite courageous defense.
After a grueling siege and several days of intense bombardment, Anglo-Portuguese forces launched a night assault against Badajoz's fortifications. Despite fierce French defense, the Allies seized the town after violent street fighting.
The Battle of Salamanca saw the Army of Portugal, commanded by Marmont, surprised and defeated by a skillful attack by Wellington. A false maneuver by Marmont exposed his left flank, which the Allies exploited with a decisive attack that broke the French lines.
Napoleon attacked the fortified town of Smolensk to pin the Russian army and force a decisive battle. Despite intense fighting and devastating bombardments, the Russians finally abandoned the town at night, allowing the French to seize it.
The Battle of the Moskva, known as the Battle of Borodino, was the bloodiest engagement of the Napoleonic Wars. Napoleon sought to break the Russian army before reaching Moscow. After a day of murderous frontal assaults on Russian redoubts, the French managed to pierce the enemy center without destroying the Russian army, which withdrew in order.
While Murat observed the Russians camped at Tarutino during the general French withdrawal, they launched a surprise attack at dawn. The French vanguard was surprised, suffered heavy losses, and retreated in disorder. Napoleon lost strategic initiative.
In an attempt to retreat southward, Napoleon advanced Eugène's troops toward Kaluga. At Maloyaroslavets they faced Russian forces in fierce urban combat. The town changed hands several times. Although the French gained the advantage, Napoleon chose to withdraw along the already devastated Smolensk route.
Surprised by a Russian attack while leading the rearguard of the retreat from Moscow, Murat was forced into combat at Vinkovo. His forces were outflanked by enemy numerical superiority and had to abandon the ground, thus breaking cover for the withdrawal.
During the retreat from Russia, several corps of the Grande Armée were attacked separately by the Russians near Krasnoi. Napoleon managed to relieve Eugène and Davout, but Ney's corps was isolated and hard hit. He nevertheless rejoined the army after a legendary march.
In a desperate attempt to cross the Berezina to escape encirclement, Napoleon had two bridges erected under Russian fire. Thanks to a successful diversion, French troops managed to cross the river at the cost of heavy losses. The phrase "it's a Berezina" derives from this bloody retreat.
Lützen was the first great battle of the German campaign. Surprised by a Russo-Prussian attack on his flank, Napoleon reacted swiftly, gathered his forces, and launched a massive counterattack. The Allies withdrew in order but conceded the field.
Napoleon launched a massive attack on Russo-Prussian forces entrenched at Bautzen. Despite violent fighting and numerical superiority, the allied army managed to retreat. Imperfect coordination between Ney and Napoleon prevented the expected encirclement.
Wellington launched a coordinated attack on four axes against French positions at Vitoria. Outflanked on their flanks and center, the French retreated in disorder. The rout was worsened by the loss of Joseph Bonaparte's treasury and baggage.
The Allies launched an attack on Dresden expecting to face an inferior French force. But Napoleon arrived in time with reinforcements and organized an effective counter-offensive, exploiting waterlogged terrain to trap the enemy. The Allies were beaten and had to withdraw.
Vandamme, sent in pursuit of the Allies after Dresden, advanced too far without support. He was caught in a pincer by superior forces from the rear and flank. His corps was nearly annihilated and he himself was captured. This defeat canceled the tactical benefits of Dresden.
In driving rain, Macdonald's troops crossed the Katzbach to face Blücher, but waterlogged ground disorganized their progress. Blücher counterattacked vigorously on the flanks, broke the French order of battle, and provoked a rout. It was one of the worst defeats of the campaign.
Charged with marching on Berlin, Ney suffered an allied counter-offensive at Dennewitz. Poorly coordinated, his attack failed against determined resistance and a turning maneuver by Bernadotte. The French retreat degenerated into rout, ending the offensive toward the north.
The Battle of Leipzig, also called the "Battle of the Nations," was the largest military confrontation of the Napoleonic Wars. For four days Napoleon resisted the coordinated assault of allied armies converging on Leipzig from the north, south, and east. Despite energetic defense and several successful counterattacks, enemy numerical superiority became overwhelming. On 18 October Saxon troops went over to the enemy, further disorganizing French lines. On 19 October Napoleon ordered retreat, but the premature destruction of the Elster bridge trapped 30,000 men, including part of the Guard and Marshal Poniatowski, who drowned.
After his retreat from Leipzig, Napoleon encountered a Bavarian-Austrian army at Hanau that attempted to block his route to the Rhine. Although his troops were tired and outnumbered, he attacked violently on 30 October. The Imperial Guard and artillery broke the enemy center. Wrede withdrew in disorder. On the 31st Napoleon continued his advance and crossed the Kinzig, securing the route to Mainz.
The Battle of Brienne opposed Napoleon to Blücher's Russo-Prussian troops in an attempt to divide enemy forces before they could regroup. Napoleon attacked vigorously and surprised the enemy, but Blücher, well entrenched, managed to withdraw in good order despite heavy losses. The town was taken, but the strategic objective of cutting enemy armies failed.
The Battle of La Rothière was one of the rare open-field engagements between Napoleon and the Allies in 1814. Surprised by massive concentration of coalition forces, Napoleon, outnumbered, attempted to hold his positions. Fighting was fierce in snow and mud. After resisting all day, Napoleon ordered retreat at nightfall. Although tactically lost, the battle did not become a rout thanks to French discipline.
At Champaubert, Napoleon surprised an isolated Russian corps under General Olsufiev. Thanks to rapid maneuver and surprise, he encircled and crushed the enemy. Nearly all Russian troops were killed or captured. Olsufiev himself was taken prisoner. This victory inaugurated a series of tactical coups that marked the Six Days' Campaign.
The day after Champaubert, Napoleon turned against Sacken's and Yorck's forces advancing separately toward Paris. He rapidly concentrated his troops and struck at Montmirail. Fighting was intense but arrival of the Imperial Guard and French tactical superiority led to victory. The Allies retreated in disorder, abandoning men and equipment.
Pursuing troops beaten at Montmirail, Napoleon caught coalition forces at Château-Thierry on the banks of the Marne. He launched a vigorous attack to prevent their retreat toward Soissons. The Allies were surprised while crossing the river. French cavalry played a key role, capturing many guns and prisoners. The victory reinforced the image of French invincibility in this lightning campaign.
Last battle of the Six Days' Campaign, Vauchamps saw Napoleon inflict a severe defeat on Blücher's forces, which had attempted to attack the French rearguard. Marmont resisted skillfully until arrival of reinforcements led by Napoleon. An encirclement maneuver, supported by a powerful cavalry charge, forced the Prussians into disastrous retreat.
At Montereau, Napoleon faced Austro-Württemberg troops of the Hereditary Prince of Württemberg. After difficult progress due to enemy resistance and slowness of some French troops, the Emperor personally took command on the field. Thanks to coordinated attack on the bridges of the Seine and Yonne, he inflicted a heavy defeat on the coalition, which abandoned the town.
Macdonald attempted to slow Schwarzenberg's grand army at Bar-sur-Aube, but the French forces, outnumbered, were repulsed after violent fighting. The enemy, well organized with overwhelming superiority in numbers and artillery, retook this strategic position, opening the way toward Troyes and the Seine.
The Battle of Craonne opposed French troops to Blücher's army on the steep plateau overlooking the Aisne. Napoleon, wishing to deny the Allies passage toward Laon, ordered a difficult frontal attack. Ney launched his divisions against entrenched Russian positions. After violent fighting, the French took the plateau, forcing the enemy to fall back.
Napoleon attempted to regain initiative against Blücher's army, firmly entrenched on the heights of Laon. Despite major numerical inferiority, he launched several frontal attacks supported by Ney and his marshals. Assaults failed due to unfavorable terrain, lack of coordination, and extreme fatigue of the French army. Laon remained in coalition hands, marking a major strategic failure.
Napoleon, reacting with lightning speed after his retreat from Laon, surprised the allied corps of General Saint-Priest occupying Reims. In a few hours French forces retook the city after a well-coordinated attack. Saint-Priest was mortally wounded and his army suffered severe losses. It was one of Napoleon's last brilliant victories before the fall of Paris.
Napoleon attempted to surprise Schwarzenberg's army at Arcis-sur-Aube. He engaged believing he faced only a rearguard, but discovered too late that he confronted the main allied army. On 20 March the French repulsed enemy outposts, but the next day found themselves heavily outnumbered. Napoleon then ordered an orderly retreat covered by Sébastiani's cavalry.
Napoleon, hoping to divert allied forces from Paris, launched a raid eastward and faced Russian cavalry at Saint-Dizier. Combat was sharp but limited, mainly opposing mounted units. Napoleon attempted to make believe in a major eastern offensive, but the Allies did not fall into the trap and marched directly on Paris. Combat ended without decisive victor.
The Battle of Paris was the final engagement of the Campaign of France. While Napoleon attempted to harass coalition rearguards at Saint-Dizier, they marched directly on the capital. Marmont and Mortier, with greatly inferior forces, defended the city fiercely, notably at Belleville, Montmartre, and Romainville. On 31 March Marmont capitulated to avoid destruction of Paris.
The Battle of Ligny was Napoleon's last personal military triumph. There he partially crushed the Prussian army commanded by Blücher, which attempted to resist the French in the villages of Ligny and Saint-Amand. The Imperial Guard led the decisive assault. However, Ney's failure to defeat Wellington at Quatre Bras the same day prevented Napoleon from completely destroying the Prussians.
The same day as Ligny, Ney attempted to take the strategic crossroads of Quatre Bras to prevent junction between Wellington's and Blücher's armies. Despite vigorous initial attack and temporary capture of the crossroads, Ney failed to exploit advantage and was repulsed by allied reinforcements. The battle ended without clear victor, but the Allies retained the position.
The Battle of Waterloo, fought on 18 June 1815, brutally ended the Hundred Days and the imperial destiny of Napoleon Bonaparte. Facing Anglo-allied forces of the Duke of Wellington and the decisive arrival of Blücher's Prussian army, Napoleon engaged his last great battle hoping to destroy his enemies separately. In the morning waterlogged ground slowed French movements, delaying the assault. Engagement began with a massive attack on the fortified farm of Hougoumont, followed by commitment of d'Erlon's corps against the allied center. Intervention of British cavalry, led by the Scots Greys and heavy dragoons, repulsed the French attempt. From 3 p.m. Ney, believing in enemy retreat, launched several cavalry charges without infantry or artillery support. These successive assaults failed against well-formed allied squares. Progressive arrival of Prussian troops on the French right flank reversed the balance. At day's end Napoleon committed the Imperial Guard in a final effort to pierce the enemy center. The Guard was repulsed by British and Belgian-Dutch troops, provoking panic in French ranks. Rout spread and defeat became irreversible. Waterloo was more than a military defeat: it was strategic and psychological collapse.
20 September 1792
The Battle of Valmy is a major victory for the young French Republic. It halts the Prussian advance toward Paris and galvanizes the Revolution.
6 November 1792
The Battle of Jemappes is an important victory for the French revolutionary armies that allows conquest of Belgium and marks a major advance in the war against the coalition monarchies.
2 October 1793
The Battle of Andernach is an important French victory that repulses Prussian forces on the east bank of the Rhine, consolidating the Republic's territorial gains.
18 March 1793
The Battle of Neerwinden is a significant French defeat that marks retreat of revolutionary forces from Belgium.
13 October 1793
The First Battle of Wissembourg is an indecisive confrontation between French revolutionary forces and coalition armies, which fails to unblock the situation on the Rhine front.
26 – 29 December 1793
The Battle of Wissembourg is a major victory of French revolutionary armies that drives coalition forces out of Alsace and consolidates their control over the region.
6 – 8 September 1793
The Battle of Hondschoote is a French victory that ends the siege of Dunkirk and drives coalition forces out of Flanders.
25 May – 27 July 1793
The siege of Valenciennes ends in French defeat, the town falling to coalition forces after a prolonged siege.
15 – 16 October 1793
The Battle of Wattignies is a strategic victory for French revolutionary forces that allows lifting of the siege of Maubeuge held by Austrian troops. It restores confidence to French armies and secures a key position in the north.
28 November – 3 December 1793
The Battle of Kaiserslautern is a key French victory that halts Prussian advance in the region and secures French positions along the Rhine.
18 September – 19 December 1793
The siege of Toulon is a strategic victory for the French Republic, which retakes the town held by royalists supported by an Anglo-Spanish coalition. It is during this siege that Napoleon Bonaparte distinguishes himself for his artillery talents.
26 June 1794
The Battle of Fleurus is a decisive French victory that ensures control of Belgium and opens the way to conquest of the Austrian Netherlands.
1 June – 27 July 1794
The siege of Valenciennes is an important French victory that allows retaking the town from coalition forces and consolidating the Republic's position in the north.
22 June 1795
The Battle of Basel is an important French victory that ensures the Republic's domination over part of the upper Rhine and opens the way to occupation of Switzerland.
late 1795
In 1795, several skirmishes and engagements took place in the Höchstädt region between French and Austrian armies. These confrontations resulted in no decisive victory and ended in mutual withdrawals without significant territorial change.
2 October 1796
The Battle of Biberach is a French victory that strengthens Moreau's position in southern Germany by repulsing Austrian forces led by Latour.
12 April 1796
Napoleon's first major victory in Italy; the Battle of Montenotte split the Austro-Sardinian forces in two, compromising their coordination and opening the way to French domination of the region.
13 – 14 April 1796
The Battle of Millesimo consolidated the victory at Montenotte by harrying retreating troops, further disrupting Austro-Sardinian cohesion.
14 – 15 April 1796
Victory that completed the fragmentation of coalition forces, giving the French control of an important strategic position on the route south.
21 April 1796
French victory that forced the Kingdom of Sardinia to request an armistice, facilitating the conquest of Piedmont.
10 May 1796
Major victory that opened the way to the capture of Milan, consolidating Napoleon's Italian campaign.
5 August 1796
French victory that neutralized an Austrian attempt to lift the siege of Mantua.
8 September 1796
Victory that drives the Austrians eastward, consolidating French control in Venetia.
30 October 1796
Tactical engagement that does not substantially alter the strategic situation in the region.
15 – 17 November 1796
French victory thanks to a bold offensive that takes control of the Arcole bridge, halting Austrian advance.
14 – 15 January 1797
Decisive victory that ended the Austrian offensive and secured French domination of northern Italy.
18 April 1797
Strategic victory by Hoche that forced the Austrians to retreat, consolidating the French position along the Rhine.
21 July 1798
Decisive victory by Napoleon that broke Mamluk military power in Egypt, opening the way to French conquest of the country.
1 August 1798
Major naval defeat for France in which Brueys's fleet was annihilated by the British navy under Nelson, isolating the French army in Egypt.
25 March 1799
Heavy French defeat that forced Jourdan to retreat, weakening the French position in southwestern Germany.
25 July 1799
French victory that successfully defended the position at Alexandria against an Ottoman offensive, consolidating the French presence in Egypt despite maritime isolation.
15 August 1799
On 15 August 1799, the Battle of Novi pitted General Joubert's French army against an Austro-Russian coalition led by Marshal Suvorov and General Kray. From the first hours, Joubert was mortally wounded, depriving the French of centralized command and gravely destabilizing their lines. French troops, already worn down by previous fighting and numerically inferior, nevertheless fought fiercely against repeated coalition attacks. The day was marked by frontal assaults and local counterattacks, in which the French army showed remarkable but insufficient resistance. One of the bloodiest battles of the Italian campaign, it ended in a major French defeat and a precipitate retreat toward the Apennines.
25–26 September 1799
Major French victory under Masséna that forced the coalition to withdraw from Switzerland, securing strategic control of the region.
20 March 1800
Decisive French victory under Kléber that repulsed a large Ottoman army, securing French domination of the Nile Delta.
9 May 1800
Important French victory that repulsed Austrian forces and secured the French advance in southern Germany.
14 June 1800
The Battle of Marengo was a decisive victory for Napoleon Bonaparte that secured control of northern Italy. After a difficult start, the French army, thanks to a counterattack led by Desaix, reversed the situation and inflicted a heavy defeat on the Austrians.
14 October 1800
The Battle of Elchingen, often called the Battle of Höchstädt, was a decisive victory for French forces under General Ney, breaking Austrian lines and renewing the offensive in southern Germany.
3 December 1800
Decisive victory by Moreau at the Battle of Hohenlinden, inflicting a heavy defeat on the Austrians and allowing the French offensive in Germany to continue.
25 December 1800
The Battle of Pozzolo was an important French victory that pushed Austrian forces beyond the Mincio and consolidated French domination in Lombardy.
May – August 1801
The French expedition to Holland aimed to repel British and Russian coalition forces occupying the Batavian Republic. Moreau succeeded in restoring French control over the region.
21 March – 22 June 1801
The Siege of Cairo ended with the capitulation of French forces to British troops, bringing the French campaign in Egypt to an end.
17 August – 2 September 1801
The Siege of Alexandria ended with the capitulation of French forces to the British, bringing an end to the French presence in Egypt.
21 March 1801
French naval defeat near Alexandria, significantly reducing French maritime capacity in the Mediterranean and definitively severing links between France and its troops in Egypt.
February – December 1802
In 1802, France launched a major military expedition led by General Leclerc to restore control over its colony of Saint-Domingue, severely shaken by the slave rebellion. Despite initial tactical victories, the campaign faced fierce insurgent resistance and massive losses from combat and tropical disease.
4 February – 24 March 1802
Fort Crête-à-Pierrot, held by Haitian insurgents, was besieged by French troops in a prolonged battle. Despite fierce insurgent resistance, the French finally took the fort after several weeks of fighting.
March – April 1802
The siege of the port city of Saint-Marc was conducted by French forces seeking to retake a strategic position held by insurgents. After several weeks of fighting, the French succeeded in capturing the city.
18 November 1803
The Battle of Vertières was the last major engagement of the Haitian War of Independence. French forces, weakened by prolonged fighting and disease, were defeated by the Haitian insurgent army led by Dessalines. This defeat led to the final surrender of French troops and marked the end of French colonial presence in Saint-Domingue.
June 1803
After the breakdown of the Peace of Amiens, the British retook the strategic island of Saint Lucia in the West Indies, regaining control of territories colonized during the brief peace.
May – November 1803
The Siege of Cap-Français was a long siege that progressively weakened French forces in their main bastion in Saint-Domingue. Haitian resistance, combined with harsh conditions, led to final surrender after the Battle of Vertières.
8 October 1805
The Battle of Wertingen was the first engagement of the Ulm campaign. French cavalry under Murat swept the Austrian vanguard in a rapid, violent attack. Lannes supported the offensive with infantry.
9 October 1805
Lannes was ordered to seize the bridges over the Danube at Günzburg to cut Austrian retreat to the east. He launched several assaults against Austrian defenses protecting the strategic crossings.
11 October 1805
Dupont's isolated division encountered an overwhelming Austrian force near Ulm. Despite numerical inferiority, it held its position for several hours, inflicting heavy losses and preventing any strategic breakthrough.
14 October 1805
The Battle of Elchingen was a crucial engagement in tightening the noose around Ulm. Ney launched a vigorous attack against Austrian forces entrenched on the heights of Elchingen, forcing them to retreat in disorder.
20 October 1805
The capitulation of Ulm ended the strategic encirclement orchestrated by Napoleon. Austrian General Karl Mack surrendered with nearly 27,000 men without a real battle, trapped by the Grande Armée's speed of maneuver.
21 October 1805
Trafalgar is the most famous naval battle of the Napoleonic Wars. The Franco-Spanish fleet sought to break the British blockade but was intercepted and destroyed by Nelson, whose bold tactics produced a crushing victory despite his death in action.
29 – 31 October 1805
The Battle of Caldiero pitted Masséna's troops against those of Archduke Charles in difficult weather conditions. Despite several attempts, the French failed to break the Austrian lines.
11 November 1805
Gazan's division, isolated in a gorge on the Danube, was encircled and attacked from all sides by a greatly superior Austro-Russian force. Mortier sent reinforcements to prevent annihilation. Fighting was bloody and intense, but the French managed to extricate themselves.
16 November 1805
In this rearguard action, Russian General Bagration skillfully delayed the French advance to allow the bulk of the Austro-Russian army to fall back toward Brünn and join Kutuzov. Murat fell into the Russians' diplomatic trap, accepting a false armistice to gain time.
2 December 1805
The Battle of Austerlitz, known as the "Battle of the Three Emperors," marks the apex of Napoleonic strategy. Facing a numerically superior allied army, Napoleon used ruse, meticulous preparation of the terrain, and the mobility of his troops to transform an apparently unfavorable position into a crushing victory. He deliberately placed his army on the Pratzen plateau, which he then had evacuated to lure the enemy into concentrating forces there. Convinced that the French right flank was weakened, the Austro-Russians committed the bulk of their troops to it. This maneuver dangerously weakened their center, which they believed out of reach. Napoleon waited until the enemy was fully committed to this error before ordering Soult's corps, concealed in the fog, to assault the plateau. The breakthrough at the center literally cut the allied army in two, sowing panic and making coordination impossible. On the wings, Davout and Lannes held or advanced according to plan, while Murat's cavalry and the Imperial Guard exploited the collapse of the enemy dispositions to capture thousands of prisoners. The rout was total: many Austro-Russian soldiers drowned attempting to flee across the frozen ponds of Satschan under French artillery fire. Austerlitz is not only a tactical masterpiece but also a political turning point for Europe; the victory placed Napoleon at the height of his glory and upended the continental balance.
10 October 1806
The Battle of Saalfeld saw Lannes's French vanguard meet a Prussian corps commanded by the young Prince Louis Ferdinand. Despite his bravery, the latter died in combat and his troops were defeated by skillful French maneuvers.
14 October 1806
The Battle of Jena saw Napoleon crush the left wing of the Prussian army. Despite morning fog and incomplete information, the Emperor skillfully maneuvered his army corps to overwhelm enemy positions. The arrival of Davout's corps in reinforcement at Auerstedt the same day completed a general rout.
14 October 1806
On the same day as Napoleon at Jena, Davout faced the bulk of the Prussian army. Despite numerical inferiority of roughly one to two, he held all day thanks to the exceptional discipline of his troops. General Brunswick was mortally wounded, the Prussian chain of command collapsed, and Davout turned a defensive position into a brilliant victory.
17 October 1806
Three days after Jena, Bernadotte intercepted an important Prussian division in retreat at Halle. He launched a brutal attack against their entrenched positions, taking the city by storm, cutting bridges, and sowing chaos in enemy ranks.
28 October 1806
Prince Hohenlohe's Prussian column, in retreat after Jena, was intercepted near Prenzlau by Murat's cavalry. A brief skirmish degenerated into encirclement, and Murat forced Hohenlohe to capitulate by exaggerating French strength. Ruse, speed, and tactical pressure triumphed.
6 November 1806
Seeking to escape encirclement, Blücher attempted to take refuge in Lübeck, a free and neutral city. The French forced entry into the city despite protests from authorities and fought in the streets. Fighting was intense and ended in Prussian capitulation.
8 November 1806
After a short siege, the powerful fortress of Magdeburg, one of Prussia's most important, capitulated without offering real resistance. Ney, encircling the city and bombarding its outskirts, persuaded the Prussian commander to surrender.
26 December 1806
In a grueling winter offensive, French forces engaged the Russian rearguard at Gołymin. Fighting was confused, made difficult by snow, mud, and nightfall. The Russians held firmly, then managed to withdraw in good order.
26 December 1806
In extreme weather conditions, Lannes faced a numerically superior Russian army at Pułtusk. Though violently attacked, Bennigsen refused to retreat immediately and sustained fighting all day. At nightfall the Russians withdrew in good order, but both sides claimed victory.
25 January 1807
During a winter redeployment phase, Ney was surprised by a Russian offensive near Mohrungen. His troops, numerically inferior, resisted fiercely and prevented the Russians from penetrating deeper into the French zone. After violent fighting, the Russians withdrew.
6 February 1807
Murat's French cavalry engaged Russian vanguards on icy, difficult terrain. Fighting was violent but confused, ending without a clear victor. This battle set the stage for the decisive confrontation at Eylau two days later.
8 February 1807
Eylau was one of the bloodiest battles of the Napoleonic era. Under a snowstorm, the French attacked Russian lines around the town of Eylau. The battlefield was chaotic, visibility nil. Murat led a cavalry charge of more than 10,000 men to halt the enemy advance. At day's end both sides remained on the field, drained of blood. Napoleon claimed victory, but the result was militarily indecisive.
16 February 1807
Verdier's division, isolated at Ostrołęka, was attacked by a greatly superior Russian force. Verdier skillfully defended his positions, repulsed several assaults, and retained control of the town after a day of fierce fighting.
10 June 1807
The Battle of Heilsberg opposed French forces to Russians solidly entrenched on heights behind the Alle River. The poorly coordinated French attack met fierce defense. Casualties were heavy on both sides, and the French failed to break through.
14 June 1807
The Battle of Friedland opposed Napoleon's French forces to Bennigsen's Russian army, which had imprudently engaged with the Alle River at its back. After a tenacious defense led by Lannes in the morning, Napoleon arrived with the bulk of his forces, launched a massive attack on the Russian left flank, and crushed the enemy army. Victory was total, sealing the end of the campaign.
6 and 14 June 1808
The two engagements at El Bruc saw French columns attacked in the Catalan mountains by local militias. Poorly prepared for the terrain, Schwartz's and then Chabran's forces were repulsed by tenacious defense, reinforced by surprise and popular support.
14 July 1808
The Battle of Medina de Rioseco saw Bessières's French forces attack a divided Spanish army. Taking advantage of poor coordination between Generals Blake and Cuesta, Bessières launched a decisive attack on the center and destroyed the union of enemy forces. It was one of the rare French successes at the start of the Peninsular War.
19 July 1808
The Battle of Bailén opposed General Dupont's French troops, isolated in the Guadalquivir valley, to the Spanish armies of Castaños and Reding. After several days of skirmishing, the French attempted a breakthrough but were caught in a pincer. Overwhelmed by heat, lack of supplies, and encirclement, Dupont capitulated with his entire army.
29 July 1808
Loison marched toward Lisbon from the Portuguese interior to support occupation forces. At Évora he met resistance from local militias and Spanish volunteers. After a short battle, the French swept enemy positions and took the city, which was then sacked by the troops.
17 August 1808
General Delaborde, numerically inferior, sought to slow the British advance toward Lisbon. He positioned himself on the heights of Roliça. Wellesley first attempted an encirclement, then a frontal attack. Despite tenacious resistance, the French were repulsed but withdrew in good order.
21 August 1808
Junot attempted a frontal attack against Wellesley's fortified positions around Vimeiro. Despite several determined assaults, the French failed to break through. British defensive superiority, well-positioned artillery, and use of terrain prevented any French advance. Junot was forced to retreat.
31 October 1808
Blake, poorly positioned on the heights of Zornoza, was attacked by Lefebvre with part of IV Corps. The French gained the advantage from the start thanks to superior artillery and discipline. Blake managed to withdraw but suffered heavy losses.
5 November 1808
As a division of Marshal Victor advanced isolated at the front, Blake succeeded in surprising it with a force attack. The French were momentarily beaten and forced to withdraw. It was a rare Spanish success during the November campaign.
10 November 1808
The Battle of Gamonal opposed Soult's French vanguard to an inferior Spanish force commanded by Belveder. The Spanish, inexperienced and poorly positioned on open ground, were swept by French infantry supported by a powerful cavalry charge. The road to Burgos was opened.
10–11 November 1808
After the surprise at Valmaseda, Victor pursued Blake and caught him at Espinosa. On 10 November the Spanish resisted the first attacks, but the next day Victor concentrated his forces, broke the Spanish center, and dispersed the army. It was a complete victory that temporarily eliminated the threat in the north.
23 November 1808
The Battle of Tudela opposed a poorly coordinated Spanish army to a French force superior in organization. Lannes attacked the Spanish center and right, breaking their line, while Moncey pressed on the left wing. The Spanish army was dislocated and in flight before nightfall.
30 November 1808
To open the road to Madrid, Napoleon ordered an attack on Spanish redoubts defending the Somosierra pass. After several unsuccessful infantry assaults, he ordered a bold charge by the Polish Guard chasseurs. They broke enemy lines, captured the guns, and forced the Spanish to retreat. The road to the capital was cleared.
16 December 1808
Saint-Cyr, marching from Girona to relieve besieged Barcelona, faced a numerically inferior but solidly positioned Spanish army at Cardedeu. He concentrated his forces for a rapid frontal breakthrough that broke Spanish lines. Vives's army disintegrated and Saint-Cyr relieved the city shortly afterward.
21 December 1808
After his victory at Cardedeu, Saint-Cyr continued the offensive and attacked the combined forces of Vives and Reding entrenched at Molins de Rei on the outskirts of Barcelona. A coordinated frontal assault, supported by artillery, broke Spanish lines. The enemy army disintegrated and Barcelona was definitively relieved from siege.
29 December 1808
In the context of the British retreat toward La Coruña, Lefebvre-Desnouettes's Guard chasseurs crossed the frozen Esla River to attempt a surprise attack on the British rearguard. But British hussars reacted quickly, countercharged, and inflicted a defeat on the French. Lefebvre was captured.
3 January 1809
Pursuing retreating British forces, French cavalry reached the bridge at Cacabelos defended by the British rearguard. An attack was launched without coordination with French infantry. The British, well posted, inflicted losses and killed General Colbert with a sharpshooter's shot. The French fell back awaiting reinforcements.
13 January 1809
Victor attacked Spanish forces entrenched near the monastery of Uclès. The well-coordinated assault broke the enemy line, and French cavalry exploited the breakthrough to encircle fugitives. Rout was complete, and Venegas narrowly escaped capture.
16 January 1809
Cornered against the sea after a long retreat, the British army defended the port city of La Coruña while awaiting evacuation by sea. Soult attacked on 16 January, hoping to prevent their escape. The British held firm and resisted French assaults, succeeding in embarking the majority of their troops during the night. Moore was killed in the fighting.
1 February 1809
Suchet faced the Valencian army near Castellón in a decisive battle to secure the eastern flank of Spain. Though slightly inferior in numbers, the French engaged a methodical attack and broke the Spanish center. French cavalry pursued fugitives and completed the victory.
25 February 1809
Suchet, seeking to secure the province of Tarragona, intercepted Reding's army near Valls. After cautious reconnaissance, he launched a combined attack at the center and on the flanks. French cavalry, skillfully led, executed a turning maneuver that trapped the Spanish. Reding was mortally wounded in the rout.
28 March 1809
Despite numerical inferiority, Victor engaged a decisive maneuver against Cuesta's army deployed on an extended line. After containing Spanish attacks on his wings, he launched a central counteroffensive supported by artillery and cavalry. The Spanish army was completely routed.
12 May 1809
Wellesley led a bold surprise attack on Porto, crossing the Douro with a light force before Soult could react. Caught off guard, the French marshal attempted to rally his troops, but the bridge was cut and Anglo-Portuguese forces advanced rapidly into the city. Retreat became inevitable.
14 June 1809
General Schwarz's French column, sent from Barcelona to secure the road to Lleida, was stopped in the El Bruc pass by determined Catalan militias. Supported by regular troops, the latter used the heights and coordinated ambushes to block French advance. After several breakthrough attempts, Schwarz retreated toward Barcelona.
5–6 July 1809
The Battle of Wagram was one of the largest engagements of the Napoleonic Wars, pitting the forces of Napoleon I against the Austrian army commanded by Archduke Charles. After suffering a reverse at Aspern-Essling, Napoleon crossed the Danube again in early July 1809 with the help of a vast pontoon bridge built in secret. On 5 July the French army was attacked while still deploying, but held against the assaults. The next day Napoleon organized a decisive counter-offensive, supported by a massive concentration of artillery in the center (the "grand battery") and a powerful attack on the right flank led by Marshal Davout. Archduke Charles, unable either to break the French lines or contain their coordinated attacks, ordered a retreat on the evening of 6 July. This victory allowed Napoleon to impose severe terms on Austria.
27–28 July 1809
French forces of Joseph Bonaparte and Marshal Victor attacked entrenched Anglo-Spanish positions around Talavera. The battle was bloody and fierce, with repeated assaults against heights held by Wellington's troops. After two days of fighting, the French failed to break British lines. However, the allies could not exploit their victory due to fatigue, losses, and the arrival of a new French army in their rear.
11 August 1809
Venegas's Spanish forces, attempting to march on Madrid after the Battle of Talavera, were intercepted at Almonacid by General Sébastiani. Despite numerical superiority and a defensive position on the heights, the Spanish were repulsed after a series of coordinated assaults by French infantry and artillery. Their line gave way in the afternoon, followed by a disorganized retreat.
21 September 1809
The British launched an amphibious raid on the port of Saint-Paul to capture the French privateer schooner Caroline, very active in the Indian Ocean. Governor Des Bruslys, broken by pressure, committed suicide the day before. Colonel Saint-Michel organized a defense with militiamen and a few coastal artillery pieces, but the British managed to land, capture the fort, disarm the batteries, and burn the port. Caroline was seized.
18 October 1809
Duke del Parque's Spanish army occupied the heights of Tamames and repulsed General Marchand's frontal attack. Despite several assaults, French troops, numerically inferior and poorly coordinated, failed to break the Spanish line. The battle marked one of the rare Spanish tactical successes in 1809.
19 November 1809
Despite numerical inferiority, Soult and Sébastiani faced Aréizaga's Spanish army near Ocaña. Thanks to a powerful artillery attack, a cavalry maneuver on the right wing, and experienced infantry, the French inflicted total rout on the Spanish. The Army of La Mancha was destroyed.
28 November 1809
Taking advantage of the precipitate withdrawal of Duke del Parque's Spanish troops after Tamames, General Kellermann launched a rapid pursuit. The Spanish rearguard, surprised near the bridge at Alba de Tormes, was attacked by French cavalry before the entire army could cross the river. Enemy formations were broken and artillery captured.
20–27 August 1810
The Battle of Grand Port is the only major French naval victory of the Napoleonic Wars after Trafalgar. Duperré and Bouvet's French frigates, aided by coastal batteries, lured British ships into a narrow lagoon. The enemy fleet ran aground on the reefs. The French destroyed two ships and captured two others. It was a resounding reverse for the Royal Navy.
27 September 1810
Masséna attempted to break through the Anglo-Portuguese defensive line entrenched on the heights of Bussaco. The frontal assault led by Reynier and Ney failed against a well-organized defense and well-positioned allied artillery. Despite numerical superiority, the French army suffered a costly tactical defeat.
5 March 1811
The Battle of Barrosa saw General Victor's French troops attempt to intercept an Anglo-Spanish sortie from Cádiz. Although the Spanish hesitated, Graham's British mounted an energetic attack on the heights of Barrosa. After fierce fighting the French were repulsed but retained their strategic positions. The battle is considered indecisive, or even tactically favorable to the Allies.
3 April 1811
The Battle of Sabugal took place during Masséna's retreat from Portugal. General Reynier, commanding the rearguard, was unexpectedly attacked by a British brigade that crossed the river in the fog. Despite initial resistance, his troops were put in difficulty and had to retreat in disorder.
3–5 May 1811
The battle opposed Masséna, attempting to relieve the French garrison besieged at Almeida, to Wellington, firmly entrenched at Fuentes de Oñoro. After two days of skirmishing, Masséna launched a massive attack on 5 May. Despite initial success on the British right flank, allied resistance held. The French army withdrew without breaking the blockade.
16 May 1811
Soult attempted to raise the siege of Badajoz by attacking the allied army at Albuera. The French frontal assault, directed by Godinot then Girard, initially succeeded. But a fierce counterattack by British infantry and the tenacity of Spanish troops broke the French momentum. Both sides suffered heavy losses without a decisive victory.
9 August 1811
The Battle of Zújar pitted French cavalry commanded by Latour-Maubourg against an isolated Spanish force attempting to interrupt French communications in southwestern Spain. Thanks to a skillful turning maneuver, French cavalry dispersed the enemy forces and captured a large number of prisoners.
29 August 1811
General Hugo intercepted a mobile guerrilla force commanded by 'El Empecinado' in the mountainous region of Cuenca. Thanks to a flanking movement and surprise, French troops partially encircled the Spaniards and inflicted heavy losses.
25 October 1811
Suchet faced Blake's Spanish army, which had come to relieve the besieged town of Sagunto. Thanks to a determined attack on the enemy center, French troops broke the Spanish lines and achieved a decisive victory, opening the road to Valencia.
26–30 December 1811
Suchet launched a bold maneuver to take Valencia by encircling Blake's forces. After intense fighting around Mislata and the Turia River, the Spanish army was trapped. Blake attempted a breakout but failed and had to capitulate with a large part of his troops.
7–20 January 1812
Wellington launched a rapid assault against Ciudad Rodrigo, held by a small French garrison. After several days of intense bombardment, Anglo-Portuguese troops breached the town walls and launched a night assault. The French garrison was overwhelmed despite courageous defense.
16 March – 6 April 1812
After a grueling siege and several days of intense bombardment, Anglo-Portuguese forces launched a night assault against Badajoz's fortifications. Despite fierce French defense, the Allies seized the town after violent street fighting.
22 July 1812
The Battle of Salamanca saw the Army of Portugal, commanded by Marmont, surprised and defeated by a skillful attack by Wellington. A false maneuver by Marmont exposed his left flank, which the Allies exploited with a decisive attack that broke the French lines.
16–18 August 1812
Napoleon attacked the fortified town of Smolensk to pin the Russian army and force a decisive battle. Despite intense fighting and devastating bombardments, the Russians finally abandoned the town at night, allowing the French to seize it.
7 September 1812
The Battle of the Moskva, known as the Battle of Borodino, was the bloodiest engagement of the Napoleonic Wars. Napoleon sought to break the Russian army before reaching Moscow. After a day of murderous frontal assaults on Russian redoubts, the French managed to pierce the enemy center without destroying the Russian army, which withdrew in order.
18 October 1812
While Murat observed the Russians camped at Tarutino during the general French withdrawal, they launched a surprise attack at dawn. The French vanguard was surprised, suffered heavy losses, and retreated in disorder. Napoleon lost strategic initiative.
24 October 1812
In an attempt to retreat southward, Napoleon advanced Eugène's troops toward Kaluga. At Maloyaroslavets they faced Russian forces in fierce urban combat. The town changed hands several times. Although the French gained the advantage, Napoleon chose to withdraw along the already devastated Smolensk route.
28 October 1812
Surprised by a Russian attack while leading the rearguard of the retreat from Moscow, Murat was forced into combat at Vinkovo. His forces were outflanked by enemy numerical superiority and had to abandon the ground, thus breaking cover for the withdrawal.
15–18 November 1812
During the retreat from Russia, several corps of the Grande Armée were attacked separately by the Russians near Krasnoi. Napoleon managed to relieve Eugène and Davout, but Ney's corps was isolated and hard hit. He nevertheless rejoined the army after a legendary march.
26–29 November 1812
In a desperate attempt to cross the Berezina to escape encirclement, Napoleon had two bridges erected under Russian fire. Thanks to a successful diversion, French troops managed to cross the river at the cost of heavy losses. The phrase "it's a Berezina" derives from this bloody retreat.
2 May 1813
Lützen was the first great battle of the German campaign. Surprised by a Russo-Prussian attack on his flank, Napoleon reacted swiftly, gathered his forces, and launched a massive counterattack. The Allies withdrew in order but conceded the field.
20–21 May 1813
Napoleon launched a massive attack on Russo-Prussian forces entrenched at Bautzen. Despite violent fighting and numerical superiority, the allied army managed to retreat. Imperfect coordination between Ney and Napoleon prevented the expected encirclement.
21 June 1813
Wellington launched a coordinated attack on four axes against French positions at Vitoria. Outflanked on their flanks and center, the French retreated in disorder. The rout was worsened by the loss of Joseph Bonaparte's treasury and baggage.
26–27 August 1813
The Allies launched an attack on Dresden expecting to face an inferior French force. But Napoleon arrived in time with reinforcements and organized an effective counter-offensive, exploiting waterlogged terrain to trap the enemy. The Allies were beaten and had to withdraw.
29–30 August 1813
Vandamme, sent in pursuit of the Allies after Dresden, advanced too far without support. He was caught in a pincer by superior forces from the rear and flank. His corps was nearly annihilated and he himself was captured. This defeat canceled the tactical benefits of Dresden.
26 August 1813
In driving rain, Macdonald's troops crossed the Katzbach to face Blücher, but waterlogged ground disorganized their progress. Blücher counterattacked vigorously on the flanks, broke the French order of battle, and provoked a rout. It was one of the worst defeats of the campaign.
6 September 1813
Charged with marching on Berlin, Ney suffered an allied counter-offensive at Dennewitz. Poorly coordinated, his attack failed against determined resistance and a turning maneuver by Bernadotte. The French retreat degenerated into rout, ending the offensive toward the north.
16–19 October 1813
The Battle of Leipzig, also called the "Battle of the Nations," was the largest military confrontation of the Napoleonic Wars. For four days Napoleon resisted the coordinated assault of allied armies converging on Leipzig from the north, south, and east. Despite energetic defense and several successful counterattacks, enemy numerical superiority became overwhelming. On 18 October Saxon troops went over to the enemy, further disorganizing French lines. On 19 October Napoleon ordered retreat, but the premature destruction of the Elster bridge trapped 30,000 men, including part of the Guard and Marshal Poniatowski, who drowned.
30–31 October 1813
After his retreat from Leipzig, Napoleon encountered a Bavarian-Austrian army at Hanau that attempted to block his route to the Rhine. Although his troops were tired and outnumbered, he attacked violently on 30 October. The Imperial Guard and artillery broke the enemy center. Wrede withdrew in disorder. On the 31st Napoleon continued his advance and crossed the Kinzig, securing the route to Mainz.
29 January 1814
The Battle of Brienne opposed Napoleon to Blücher's Russo-Prussian troops in an attempt to divide enemy forces before they could regroup. Napoleon attacked vigorously and surprised the enemy, but Blücher, well entrenched, managed to withdraw in good order despite heavy losses. The town was taken, but the strategic objective of cutting enemy armies failed.
1 February 1814
The Battle of La Rothière was one of the rare open-field engagements between Napoleon and the Allies in 1814. Surprised by massive concentration of coalition forces, Napoleon, outnumbered, attempted to hold his positions. Fighting was fierce in snow and mud. After resisting all day, Napoleon ordered retreat at nightfall. Although tactically lost, the battle did not become a rout thanks to French discipline.
10 February 1814
At Champaubert, Napoleon surprised an isolated Russian corps under General Olsufiev. Thanks to rapid maneuver and surprise, he encircled and crushed the enemy. Nearly all Russian troops were killed or captured. Olsufiev himself was taken prisoner. This victory inaugurated a series of tactical coups that marked the Six Days' Campaign.
11 February 1814
The day after Champaubert, Napoleon turned against Sacken's and Yorck's forces advancing separately toward Paris. He rapidly concentrated his troops and struck at Montmirail. Fighting was intense but arrival of the Imperial Guard and French tactical superiority led to victory. The Allies retreated in disorder, abandoning men and equipment.
12 February 1814
Pursuing troops beaten at Montmirail, Napoleon caught coalition forces at Château-Thierry on the banks of the Marne. He launched a vigorous attack to prevent their retreat toward Soissons. The Allies were surprised while crossing the river. French cavalry played a key role, capturing many guns and prisoners. The victory reinforced the image of French invincibility in this lightning campaign.
14 February 1814
Last battle of the Six Days' Campaign, Vauchamps saw Napoleon inflict a severe defeat on Blücher's forces, which had attempted to attack the French rearguard. Marmont resisted skillfully until arrival of reinforcements led by Napoleon. An encirclement maneuver, supported by a powerful cavalry charge, forced the Prussians into disastrous retreat.
18 February 1814
At Montereau, Napoleon faced Austro-Württemberg troops of the Hereditary Prince of Württemberg. After difficult progress due to enemy resistance and slowness of some French troops, the Emperor personally took command on the field. Thanks to coordinated attack on the bridges of the Seine and Yonne, he inflicted a heavy defeat on the coalition, which abandoned the town.
27 February 1814
Macdonald attempted to slow Schwarzenberg's grand army at Bar-sur-Aube, but the French forces, outnumbered, were repulsed after violent fighting. The enemy, well organized with overwhelming superiority in numbers and artillery, retook this strategic position, opening the way toward Troyes and the Seine.
7 March 1814
The Battle of Craonne opposed French troops to Blücher's army on the steep plateau overlooking the Aisne. Napoleon, wishing to deny the Allies passage toward Laon, ordered a difficult frontal attack. Ney launched his divisions against entrenched Russian positions. After violent fighting, the French took the plateau, forcing the enemy to fall back.
9–10 March 1814
Napoleon attempted to regain initiative against Blücher's army, firmly entrenched on the heights of Laon. Despite major numerical inferiority, he launched several frontal attacks supported by Ney and his marshals. Assaults failed due to unfavorable terrain, lack of coordination, and extreme fatigue of the French army. Laon remained in coalition hands, marking a major strategic failure.
13 March 1814
Napoleon, reacting with lightning speed after his retreat from Laon, surprised the allied corps of General Saint-Priest occupying Reims. In a few hours French forces retook the city after a well-coordinated attack. Saint-Priest was mortally wounded and his army suffered severe losses. It was one of Napoleon's last brilliant victories before the fall of Paris.
20–21 March 1814
Napoleon attempted to surprise Schwarzenberg's army at Arcis-sur-Aube. He engaged believing he faced only a rearguard, but discovered too late that he confronted the main allied army. On 20 March the French repulsed enemy outposts, but the next day found themselves heavily outnumbered. Napoleon then ordered an orderly retreat covered by Sébastiani's cavalry.
26 March 1814
Napoleon, hoping to divert allied forces from Paris, launched a raid eastward and faced Russian cavalry at Saint-Dizier. Combat was sharp but limited, mainly opposing mounted units. Napoleon attempted to make believe in a major eastern offensive, but the Allies did not fall into the trap and marched directly on Paris. Combat ended without decisive victor.
30–31 March 1814
The Battle of Paris was the final engagement of the Campaign of France. While Napoleon attempted to harass coalition rearguards at Saint-Dizier, they marched directly on the capital. Marmont and Mortier, with greatly inferior forces, defended the city fiercely, notably at Belleville, Montmartre, and Romainville. On 31 March Marmont capitulated to avoid destruction of Paris.
16 June 1815
The Battle of Ligny was Napoleon's last personal military triumph. There he partially crushed the Prussian army commanded by Blücher, which attempted to resist the French in the villages of Ligny and Saint-Amand. The Imperial Guard led the decisive assault. However, Ney's failure to defeat Wellington at Quatre Bras the same day prevented Napoleon from completely destroying the Prussians.
16 June 1815
The same day as Ligny, Ney attempted to take the strategic crossroads of Quatre Bras to prevent junction between Wellington's and Blücher's armies. Despite vigorous initial attack and temporary capture of the crossroads, Ney failed to exploit advantage and was repulsed by allied reinforcements. The battle ended without clear victor, but the Allies retained the position.
18 June 1815
The Battle of Waterloo, fought on 18 June 1815, brutally ended the Hundred Days and the imperial destiny of Napoleon Bonaparte. Facing Anglo-allied forces of the Duke of Wellington and the decisive arrival of Blücher's Prussian army, Napoleon engaged his last great battle hoping to destroy his enemies separately. In the morning waterlogged ground slowed French movements, delaying the assault. Engagement began with a massive attack on the fortified farm of Hougoumont, followed by commitment of d'Erlon's corps against the allied center. Intervention of British cavalry, led by the Scots Greys and heavy dragoons, repulsed the French attempt. From 3 p.m. Ney, believing in enemy retreat, launched several cavalry charges without infantry or artillery support. These successive assaults failed against well-formed allied squares. Progressive arrival of Prussian troops on the French right flank reversed the balance. At day's end Napoleon committed the Imperial Guard in a final effort to pierce the enemy center. The Guard was repulsed by British and Belgian-Dutch troops, provoking panic in French ranks. Rout spread and defeat became irreversible. Waterloo was more than a military defeat: it was strategic and psychological collapse.