Hundred Years' War

On June 24, 1340, the Battle of Sluis (Sluys in Flemish) constituted one of the largest and bloodiest naval battles of the entire European Middle Ages. Edward III of England, claiming the throne of France, won an overwhelming and total victory against the French fleet commanded by Hugues Quiéret and Nicolas Béhuchet. The battle took place in the shallow waters of the Zwin estuary near L'Écluse, where the French had massed around 190 ships (including many armed merchant vessels) in tight defensive formation, the ships linked by chains to form an impassable wall. Facing them, Edward III aligned a motley but effective fleet of around 250 ships, made up of English, Genoese (commanded by Barbavera), and Hanseatic vessels. English tactical superiority, combined with the deadly efficiency of Welsh and English archers armed with longbows, proved decisive. The English archers, posted on the high castles in front of the ships, systematically decimated the French crews even before the collisions. The rigid formation of the French ships, although impressive, becomes a trap: it prevents any evasive maneuver and leaves the ships vulnerable to coordinated attacks. After several hours of intense combat, the French line was pierced in several places. The French ships, deprived of their crews decimated by arrows, were captured or sunk one after the other. French losses were catastrophic: around 16,000 to 18,000 sailors and soldiers killed or captured, while the English only suffered moderate losses. Almost the entire French fleet was destroyed or captured, depriving Philip VI of any offensive naval capability for many years.

On July 26, 1340, a month after the disastrous naval defeat at Sluis, the French won an important land victory at Saint-Omer, somewhat restoring the French military image after the maritime disaster. The battle pitted the French army commanded by Eudes IV of Burgundy (around 15,000 men) against a numerically superior Flemish-English coalition force (around 20,000 men) led by Robert III of Artois, claimant to the county of Artois and ally of Edward III of England. Robert III of Artois, who had been banished from France by Philip VI and had taken refuge in England, tried to reconquer his stronghold by relying on the uprising of Flemish towns and English military support. He briefly besieged Saint-Omer, a strategic stronghold controlling the roads to northern France. However, instead of enduring a prolonged siege, the French defenders, reinforced by Burgundian and royal troops, launched an aggressive and coordinated sortie that completely surprised the besiegers. French heavy cavalry, supported by infantry, charged the poorly prepared and disorganized Flemish lines. The Flemish troops, mainly poorly disciplined communal militias poorly equipped for combat in the open countryside, quickly gave way under the shock of the French charge. The rout was total: thousands of Flemings were killed or captured, while the French suffered only light losses. Robert III of Artois himself was mortally wounded in the battle and died shortly afterwards, depriving Edward III of a valuable ally and a claimant to the earldom of Artois.

On October 21, 1345, the Battle of Auberoche constituted one of the most brilliant tactical victories of the entire Hundred Years' War and the military masterpiece of Henry of Lancaster, Earl of Derby. This battle saw an elite English force of around 1,200 men triumph against a French siege army of around 7,000 men, a French numerical superiority of almost 6 to 1. The initial situation seemed hopeless for the English: an English garrison entrenched in the castle of Auberoche was besieged by a powerful French army commanded by Louis of Poitiers. Henry of Lancaster, informed of the critical situation, organized a daring and perfectly coordinated counterattack. The English attack, launched at nightfall to maximize the effect of surprise, combined several tactical elements in a remarkable manner: the English archers, positioned on a height dominating the French camp, systematically bombarded the French positions, creating confusion and inflicting significant losses. Meanwhile, the English infantry attacked from the front, while a cavalry charge, bypassing the French camp by a ford, struck the French from the rear. This coordinated attack on several simultaneous fronts completely disorganized the French army, which, surprised and attacked from all sides, fell into panic. The French rout was total: around 1,000 dead or wounded, many knights captured including Louis de Poitiers himself, while English losses were minimal. This victory, obtained against a vastly superior force, demonstrates the absolute tactical superiority of English methods and marks a major psychological turning point in the war.

In August 1345, the Battle of Bergerac constituted the first act of a dazzling English campaign in Guyenne which would mark a turning point in the Hundred Years' War. Henry of Lancaster, Earl of Derby and one of the best English commanders of the war, landed in Bordeaux with an elite force of around 1,500 men (English and pro-Plantagenet Gascon troops). He immediately launched a daring offensive campaign aimed at reconquering the territories lost by the English in Aquitaine. Bergerac, an important strategic town in Périgord controlling a crossing point on the Dordogne, is the first target. The English attack was characterized by speed, surprise, and remarkable tactical coordination. The French troops, commanded by Louis de Poitiers and estimated at around 3,000 men, were taken completely by surprise. The English attack before the French can gather and organize an effective defense. The English archers, strategically positioned, decimated the defenders before they could even react. Attempts at French resistance were quickly broken, and the French army retreated in disorder, leaving Bergerac in English hands. This resounding victory, obtained against a numerically superior force, opened the way for a series of English successes in Guyenne and demonstrated English tactical superiority in rapid offensive operations.

On August 26, 1346, the Battle of Crécy constituted one of the greatest defeats in French military history and a decisive turning point in the Hundred Years' War. This battle saw the army of Edward III of England (approximately 16,000 men: 4,000 cavalry, 7,000 archers, 5,000 infantrymen) inflict a crushing defeat on the French army of Philip VI of Valois (approximately 20,000 men: knights, infantrymen, French archers, and Genoese mercenaries). The battle took place on a hill near Crécy-en-Ponthieu, where Edward III carefully chose an advantageous defensive position. The English deployed in three defensive divisions, with the longbow-wielding archers forming 'wedges' between the divisions of men-at-arms, creating a deadly chessboard formation. The French, confident in their numerical superiority and in the tradition of the heavy cavalry charge, launched a series of disorganized and hasty assaults. The Genoese crossbowmen, exhausted by a forced march, were sent first but were quickly decimated by the English archers whose range and rate of fire were greater. Then the French knights charged in a disorderly manner, without coordination, and were massacred by volleys of arrows from English longbows before even reaching the English lines. The successive charges all failed, transforming the battlefield into a mass grave where thousands of French knights lay. French losses were catastrophic: several thousand dead, including many high-ranking nobles (the King of Bohemia, the Count of Alençon, the Count of Flanders, and many other great lords). English losses are minimal. This crushing defeat marks the end of the superiority of heavy chivalry and the advent of English tactical superiority based on archery and defense.

In late December 1349, Geoffroi de Charny gathered around 500 lances to retake Calais through a plot with English governor Amery de Pavie. Forewarned, Edward III set a trap: the French were surprised and captured in the castle tower.

A small local battle in Saintonge: a French force tried to intercept an English raiding convoy but fell into a well-prepared ambush. Near Limalonges, Jean de Lille (~1,500 men) intercepted Thomas Coke (~500 Anglo-Gascons); the French held the advantage by day but lost their horses when captured.

A pitched engagement near Saintes between French forces led by Jean de Clermont and English troops occupying the region. The battle turns in favor of the French after a decisive cavalry charge.

On 19 September 1356 at Nouaillé-Maupertuis near Poitiers, John II the Good attempted to intercept the chevauchée of Edward, the Black Prince. Despite clear numerical superiority, the French army attacked a strong Anglo-Gascon defensive position and suffered catastrophic defeat: the king was captured with his son Philip and many great lords.

On 22 June 1372 off La Rochelle, Admiral Ambrosio Boccanegra's Castilian fleet destroyed the English naval army commanded by John Hastings, Earl of Pembroke. Of 120 English ships, 63 to 80 were sunk or captured; Pembroke was taken prisoner. The battle ended English naval superiority in the Channel and allowed Charles V to regain the land initiative in the Hundred Years' War.

As John of Gaunt leads a massive chevauchée from north to south across France, the French manage to harass his rearguard near Chizé. A coordinated attack by royal forces surprises the English and inflicts severe losses.

On 25 October 1415 (Saint Crispin's Day), near Azincourt in Artois, Henry V's army, weakened by disease and the Siege of Harfleur, inflicted a crushing defeat on numerically superior French forces. Charles VI, suffering from mental illness, did not command: the French host was led by Charles d'Albret, John of Bourbon, and Charles of Orléans. On muddy ground between two woods, French knightly charges disintegrated under volleys from English archers protected by stakes.

Taking advantage of an imprudent separation between the English vanguard and its infantry, Scottish troops commanded by John Stewart of Darnley attack the English led by the Duke of Clarence from the flank. The latter dies in combat, triggering panic and English retreat.

The Franco-Scottish army attempts to cross the Yonne at Cravant to regain the initiative in the north. Anglo-Burgundian forces attack while the enemy army is divided by the river. The Scots fight valiantly but are overwhelmed by English archery and combined charges. Complete rout of the Dauphin's troops.

On 17 August 1424 at Verneuil-sur-Avre in Normandy, the Franco-Scottish army of Duke John V of Brittany and Constable Buchan was crushed by the Anglo-Burgundian forces of John, Duke of Bedford. The Scots, considered invincible since Baugé (1421), suffered a bloody defeat: about 6,000 dead out of 6,500 engaged. The battle consolidated English dominance in France and opened the way to the conquest of Maine.

From 12 October 1428 to 8 May 1429, the English besieged Orléans, the last major Loire valley city held by the 'King of Bourges.' Joan of Arc's arrival in April 1429 revived defenders' morale; a series of coordinated assaults on English bastions led to the lifting of the siege, the first major French success in decades.

On 18 June 1429 at Patay near Orléans, the French vanguard under La Hire and Xaintrailles crushed an English foraging detachment. French cavalry inflicted heavy losses on English archers whose cavalry fled; nearly all senior English commanders were captured. A turning point in the Hundred Years' War, the victory opened the road to Reims.

On 15 April 1450 near Formigny in Normandy, Charles VII's French, initially outnumbered, won a decisive victory thanks to the arrival of Arthur de Richemont's Breton cavalry. The English field army in Normandy was destroyed; reconquest of the duchy accelerated.

On 17 July 1453 at Castillon in Guyenne, Charles VII's army destroyed John Talbot's English forces using concentrated field artillery deployed by the Bureau brothers. The last major battle of the Hundred Years' War, it ended English presence in Aquitaine except Calais.